CHEROKEES AND EARLY SETTLERS

"Fire played a historical role in the development of the vegetation in the mountain region, especially in the Jocassee Gorges. The Cherokees and early settlers used fire regularly to keep the woodlands open, provide wildlife habitat and forage for livestock."
(Jocassee Journal: Spring / Summer 2012)

SMOKEY THE BEAR

Smokey the Bear is a mascot created to educate the American public about the dangers of forest fires. The fictional character is administered by three entities: United States Forest Service, the National Association of State Foresters, and the Ad Council. The first campaign, created in 1944, was very effective. The following campaigns were just as persuasive. However, fire ecologists argue the campaign was too successful. The Smokey Bear campaign has been criticized by wildfire policy experts in cases where decades of fire suppression and the indigenous fire ecology were not taken into consideration, creating forests unnaturally dense with invasive vegetation and a heavily shaded forest floor.

A prolonged drought in the Southeast U.S. sparked dozens of wildfires in the forest of the southern Appalachian mountains. These fires began around November 9th, 2016 and lasted about a month. Pinnacle Fire, which was located in Table Rock State Park close to Pickens, SC, burned at least 10,000 acres. "The fire will have long-lasting impacts on forest composition and wildlife habitat. In general, the fire will result in many positive ecological improvements because historically, fire played a critical role in the development and maintenance of the forest and plant communities across the Blue Ridge Escarpment." -Mark Hall
(Jocassee Journal: Fall / Winter 2016)

// The following map shows the location of the Appalachian Wildfires as of November 11, 2016.

= Pinnacle Fire Area

As a result of fire suppression, some species have encroached into areas where they do not belong ecologically. Fire will eliminate many of those fire-intolerant plants.

// Here is a glimpse of an unburned, closed-canopy forest that supports aggressive, off-site species in the understory. The following plants are examples of common off-site species:

RHODODENDRON

( Rhododendron ferrugineum )
Most species have showy flowers which bloom from late winter through to early summer. Rhododendron has encroached into dry and shady habitats where it does not belong ecologically throughout the Appalachian Mountains.
RED MAPLE

( Acer rubrum )
Red Maple generates a proliferation of seeds that are easily dispersed throughout the landscape. Thus, seedlings will grow in dry habitats where fires are suppression is the norm.
MOUNTAIN LAUREL

( Kalmia latifolia )
Mountain Laurel is a broadleaved evergreen shrub in the heath family. It grows in extensive "ivy" thickets. In low, wet areas, it grows densely, but in dry uplands it has a more sparse form. It has invaded many dry, fire suppressed habitats.
YELLOW POPLAR / TULIP TREE

( Liriodendron tulipifera )
Yellow poplar is one of the most valuable hardwood trees in the United States. It grows best in deep moist soils along streams and in lower mountain coves. Like red maple, suppression of fire has allowed it to spread into ridges and other dry areas.

Fire suppressed forests become stagnant, however they can support vibrant plant communities that have been absent for decades. Diverse forests are able to withstand the ravages of disease, insect invasions and catastrophic events.

// Here is an example of a recently burned forest. The following plants are a few types of indigenous species that could thrive due to Pinnacle Mountain Fire:

OAKS

( Quercus )
Oaks have thick bark which protects them from low intensity controlled burns. They produce acorns which are important food for wildlife, birds and insects.
WILDFLOWERS

( Heller's Blazing Star / Liatris helleri )
Fire suppression has resulted in near extinction of various plants including Mountain Golden Heather, Peters Mountain Mallow and Hellers Blazing Star. These species can thrive as a result of the fire.
TABLE MOUNTAIN PINE

( Pinus pungens )
This species is only found in the Appalachian Mountains. Without fire, they would disappear. Their cones are covered with resin which melts with the heat of the fire and allows the cones to open and release their seeds.
DIVERSITY OF VEGETATION

( Huckleberry / Vaccinium )
As a result of the fire, more sunlight will penetrate the woodland canopy and reach the forest floor. Many animals will find small seed-bearing plants, fruit-producing shrubs, grasses, forbs and a diversity of vegetation.

The pinnacle fire will cause some trees to die and more snags, which are standing dead or dying trees, will be present in the future.

// Older snags provide important habitat for the following wildlife indigenous to the area:

WOODPECKERS

( Picidae )
Woodpeckers have strong bills for drilling and drumming on trees and long sticky tongues for extracting food, such as tree sap. Snags are important for this species because they eat larvae and pupae from insects within the inner bark.
WOODRATS

( Neotoma floridana )
Eastern Woodrats construct large dens that serve as nests for many generations and store food in outlying caches for the winter. While widespread and not uncommon, they have declined or disappeared in several areas. Snags serve as a great habitat for woodrats.
REPTILES

( Salamander / Caudata )
Snags occurring along streams and shorelines eventually may fall into the water, adding important woody debris to aquatic habitat. Reptiles and amphibians use snags for shelter and feeding.
SQUIRRELS

( Sciuridae )
Squirrels, porcupine and raccoons can use snags as shelter. During the winter, snags are especially valuable for denning and roosting.

BUT THE REAL WINNERS ARE... BLACK BEARS

The key to improving the quality of bear habitat is to provide habitat diversity. Pinnacle Mountain Fire created a landscape for a variety of vegetation crucial to black bears. For instance, they use hollow snags in the winter for denning and eat huckleberries that grow in previously burned areas.

PINNACLE MOUNTAIN FIRE

||| Ecosystem effects and predictions

HISTORY

CHEROKEES AND EARLY SETTLERS

AMERICAN MASCOT

SMOKEY THE BEAR

// The following map shows the location of the Appalachian Wildfires as of November 11, 2016.

= Pinnacle Fire Area

// Here is a glimpse of an unburned, closed-canopy forest that supports aggressive, off-site species in the understory. The following plants are examples of common off-site species:

RHODODENDRON

( Rhododendron ferrugineum )

RED MAPLE

( Acer rubrum )

MOUNTAIN LAUREL

( Kalmia latifolia )

YELLOW POPLAR / TULIP TREE

( Liriodendron tulipifera )

// Here is an example of a recently burned forest. The following plants are a few types of indigenous species that could thrive due to Pinnacle Mountain Fire:

OAKS

( Quercus )

WILDFLOWERS

( Heller's Blazing Star / Liatris helleri )

TABLE MOUNTAIN PINE

( Pinus pungens )

DIVERSITY OF VEGETATION

( Huckleberry / Vaccinium )

// Older snags provide important habitat for the following wildlife indigenous to the area:

WOODPECKERS

( Picidae )

WOODRATS

( Neotoma floridana )

REPTILES

( Salamander / Caudata )

SQUIRRELS

( Sciuridae )

BUT THE REAL WINNERS ARE... BLACK BEARS

AND SONGBIRDS!

Jocassee Journal

Smokey's History

Jocassee Journal